Ray,D. I, T. Quinlan, and K. Sharma. "Re-inventing African Chieftaincy in the Age of AIDS, Gender and Development”. Chieftain: The Journal of Traditional Governance. Volume I, 2006.

The authors sought to provide evidence that traditional leaders are re-inventing themselves and their offices in terms of how they promote development for their communities. They found considerable evidence that many traditional leaders are very involved in promoting development in Ghana, and to lesser degrees in South Africa and Botswana. The authors argue that the major reason for the continuing involvement of traditional leaders in community development in Ghana, Botswana and South Africa was that traditional leaders continued to have access, outside the state, to their own sources of political legitimacy (i.e. credibility) in their communities. The political legitimacy of traditional leaders is “differently-rooted” than that of the post-colonial state. This is based on the concept of “divided legitimacy” in which political legitimacy is divided between the postcolonial state and the traditional authorities. The authors also found that in South Africa and Botswana, there is a gradual progression to formally appointing and allowing women chiefs/ traditional leaders. However, the authors do not explore the driving factor for female inclusion, their status, roles and degree of authority as compared to their male counterparts.